| Question | Answer |
|---|
| Asexual reproduction | offspring clones that are genetically identical to parent |
| How do cells in parent divide in asexual reproduction? | Mitosis (division of cells not forming gametes) |
| Budding | offspring begins to form within or on parent and completed when offspring breaks free and grows on its own. |
| One example of budding animal | hydra |
| Fission | an individual splits into two or more descendents. |
| One example of fission animal | flatworms |
| Parthenogenesis | eggs produced by mitosis (offspring develops by unfertilized eggs) |
| One example of parthenogenesis animal | western whiptail lizard |
| When is it more favorable to reproduce sexually? | In an unstable, unfavorable environment, high density (easier to find mate) |
| When is it more favorable to reproduce asexually? | In a stable, favorable environment, low density population (harder to find a mate) why ruin a good thing? |
| Sexual reproduction | offspring that are genetically distinct from both parents (involves meiosis-genetic recombination and differences) |
| One example of animal that can reproduce both asexually and sexually | daphnia where sexual reproduction is more common in crowded pop than sparse pop |
| Gametogenesis- | the mitotic and meiotic cell divisions and developmental events that result in the production of male and female gametes |
| Spermatogenesis- | formation of sperm |
| Oogenesis- | formation of eggs |
| Where does gemetogenesis occur in most animals? | Gonads (a sex organ) |
| Where does gametogenesis occur in males? | Testes in the seminiferous tubules |
| Where does gametogenesis occur in females? | Ovaries |
| First stage of spermatogenesis- | spermatogonia which are diploid stem cells |
| Second stage of spermatogenesis | mitosis which divides the cell to undergo meiosis (diploid) |
| Third stage of spermatogenesis | primary spermatocytes which are products of mitosis and are diploid |
| Fourth stage of spermatogenesis | meiosis I which leads to secondary spermatocytes that then undergo meiosis II |
| Fifth stage of spermatogenesis | 4 spermatids for each spermatogonia which are haploid cells that get dumped into the lumen |
| Sixth stage of spermatogenesis | the spermatids mature into spermatozoa (mature sperm) |
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| Question | Answer |
|---|
| What is hypothesized about how animals that cannot see their mates time the release of their gametes? | Phermones might synchronize gamete release an example of this is when roommates or girls that spend a lot of time together start their cycles around the same time |
| External fertilization- | mostly in aquatic animals that release many many eggs and sperm into the environment. |
| What does research indicate about when gemetogenesis occurs? | In response to environment or favorable breeding season |
| Internal fertilization- | in many terrestrial animals and some aquatic animals (through copulatin) |
| Copulation- | deposit sperm directly into the female reproductive tract with aid of copulatory organ - penis |
| Spermatophore | package of sperm |
| Australian redback spider sex- | suicidal males backflip into mouth of female probably because this makes for longer copulation because it doesn’t stop until the meal is over and so fertilization of more eggs is possible |
| Banana slug sex- | theyre hermaphrodites with both male and female parts, during copulation one eats off the others penis |
| California newt sex- | males don’t copulate but lay a spermatophore on the floor where the female then sits on and picks it up with her cloaca (internal fertilization) |
| Cloaca- | a chamber used for both reproduction and excretory system which opens to the environment |
| Cloacal kiss- | swans don’t have copulation organ, so their cloaca kiss and the male ejaculates of the females back and semen goes into her |
| Monogamy- | one male only or one mate at a time (no monogamous animals) |
| Polygamy- | more than one partner at a time. Birds are the most polygamous |
| Extra pair copulations (EPCs) – | form a pair but copulate with others |
| Oviparity- | lay eggs and embryo develops in external environment (birds, fish,amphibians,reptiles) some species let egg fend for themselves while others take care of them |
| Viviparity- | live birth where embryonic development takes place in mothers body (mammals) |
| How did scientists understand how viviparity and oviparity evolved? | Phylogenetic tree |
| What happened with the sceloporus lizards? | They evolved viviparity independenly in two spots |
| Why were there two places where oviparity evolved into viviparity? | Viviparity should evolve with cold temperatures because they can keep egg warm in the body. |
| What happens to the developing embryo in cold temperatures? | Higher percent of deformities and develop slower |
| Male reproductive structures' 3 basic components | 1.spermatogenesis and sperm storage 2.prouction of additional fluids and 3.transport and delivery |
| Where are sperm produced? | testes |
| where are sperm stored? | epididymis |
| seminal vesicles- | contains fructose and functions as a source of chemical energy for sperm movement and stimulates mooth muscle contractions in uterus |
| prostate gland- | contains antibiotic compound which prevents urinary tract infections in males as well as citric acid that is a nutrient to sperm |
| bulbourethral gland- | contains alkaline mucous that lubricates the tip of the penis and neutralizes acids in urethra (pre-ejaculate) |
| the bulbourethral gland, prostate gland and seminal vesicles make up | accessory fluids which are added to sperm prior to ejaculation |
| ejaculation- | expulsion of sperm from the body |
| semen- | the combination of sperm and accessory fluids |
| vas deferens- | pair of muscular tubes that transports semen from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct |
| urethra- | longer tube that passes through the penis and services both the reproductive and urinary systems in males. |
| baculum- | bone inside penis which helps stiffen penis during copulation (in rodents but not humans) |
| labia majus(bottom)/labia minus(top)- | opening of the urethra and vagina |
| clitoris- | sensitive organ that develops in the same population of embryonic cells that give rise to penis |
| what is different in the urethral openings of a male and female? | male has one opening for both reproduction and urinary purposes while females have two |
| vagina- | birth canal where semen is deposited and where embryo is delivered |
| two functions of female reproduction system | 1.production and transport of eggs 2.development of offspring |
| where are eggs produced? | ovaries |
| oviduct- | tube where fertilization may take place |
| uterus- | muscular sac |
| what happens during ovulation? | a developing oocyte is expelled from ovary and enters oviduct. Fertilized eggs are then taken to the uterus |
| where does embryonic development take place? | uterus |
| cervix- | necklike opening of the uterus where the developed embryo passes through during childbirth |
| endometrium- | highly vascularized inner lining of uterus where placenta forms |
| testosterone- | male sex hormone |
| estradiol- | female sex hormone which belongs to a class of hormones known as estrogen |
| Both testosterone and estradiol are what? | steriods, both bind to receptors inside the nucleus of target cells and that the resulting hormone-receptor complexes bind to DNA and trigger changes in gene expression. |
| Where is testosterone synthesized? | in specialized cells inside the testes |
| Where does estraiol synthesized? | in the overies |
| follicle- | cells that surround each developing egg where sex hormones are produced |
| what three events do the human sex hormones play a key role in? | 1.the development of the reproductive tract in embryos 2.the maturation of the reproductive tract during the transition from childhood to adulthood 3.the regulation of spermatogenesis and oogenesis in adults |
| puberty- | the process that leads to sexual maturation in humans |
| how is puberty triggered? | increased levels of testosterone and estrogen |
| gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)- | hormone from hypothalamus |
| boys and girls who are entering puberty experience distinctive pulses in the concentration to these two pituitary hormones. | lutenizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in pituitary glands secreted into blood stream |
| What was the hypothesis about the involvement of the hypothalamus and pituitary glands in regulating sex hormones? | pulses in LH and FSH occurred in response to the release of GnRH and were responsible for testosterone and estrogen increase that leads to target tissues breasts in females and layrnx in males |
| What did scientists do to test the hypothesis about the involv. w/ hypothalamus and pituitary glands in regulating sex hormones? | They took boys and girls that had a defecit in their hypothalamus causing a postponing effect on puberty and they treated these people with GnRH which made puberty start for these individuals |
| What triggers GnRH increases at the right age? | some evidence that nutrition plays a key role...larger girls tend to undergo puberty faster than thin girls...malnutrition and extreme exercise also make puberty delay |
| two factors that lower age of puberty. | hormones getting into the environment,birth control metabolites in urine, pesticides with estrogen |
| do sex hormones undergo negative feedback? | yes |
| menstural cycle- | a monthy reproduction cycle that occurs in the ovaries about every 28 days on average |
| menstration- | the expulsion of the uterine lining |
| first phase in menstral cycle | follicular phase-where follicle matures and lasts 14 days |
| what stimulates the follicle growth? | FSH |
| what stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen? | LH |
| what happens after the follicular phase in the menstral cycle? | ovulation occurs and releases its secondary oocyte into the oviduct |
| second stage in menstral cycle | luteal phase which is the formation and degeneration of the corpus luteum |
| corpus luteum- | "yellowish body" from the ruptured follicle |
| What are events in the menstrual cycle regulated by? | Pituitary and ovarian hormones |
| In the gonadotropic hormone cycle graph what suggests that LH might trigger ovulation? | LH levels are pretty constant except for a spike just prior to ovulation |
| What are the patterns in FSH concentrations in the ovarian cycle? | FSH concentrations are high during the follicular phase and low during the luteal phase yet also make a small spike before ovulation |
| What are the patterns in progesterone levels in the ovarian hormone cycle and what does this suggest? | Progesterone is low during follicular phase and high during the luteal phase suggesting it might support maturation of the thickened uterine lining to provide for embryo |
| What are the patterns in estradiol levels in the ovarian hormone cycle? | The change in a complex way |
| What does the corpus luteum secrete? | Progesterone |
| What is menstration? | If the corpus luteum degenerates progesterone levels drop and endometrium is shed |
| What effect does estradiol levels have on regulartory hormones like LH and FSH? | High levels increase the release of regulatory hormones while low levels suppress it |
| What do progesterone injections do to regulatory hormones? | Inhibit both FSH and LH |
| Birth control is this. | Low levels of estradiol |
| What type of feedback is in the follicular phase? | Negative because low levels of estradiol suppresses secretion of LH |
| What type of feedback is in ovulation? | Positive feedback because large quantities of estradiol trigger high levels of LH and FSH |
| What type of feedback is in luteal phase? | Negative because high levels of progesterone inhibit LH and FSH |
| How long are oocytes viable after ovulation? | Less than 24 hrs |
| How long is sperm viable for? | 5 days |
| To get pregnant what needs to happen? | Intercourse has to occur less than 5 days prior to ovulation |
| Ascrosomal reaction- | enzymes release in head of sperm to chew path through oocyte membrane |
| Gestation- | full period of development |
| Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)- | chemical messenger that prevents the corpus luteum from degenerating and is used to detect pregnancy |
| First trimester- | endoderm ectoderm and mesoderm form and differentiate into organs and systems, heart pumps blood, amniotic fluid made to protect embryo, placenta forms for nutrients,nervous system too! |
| Second and third trimesters are good for. | Growth |
| How does mother nourish the fetus? | Body changes increases cardiac output, breathing rate and volume increase,higher gas exchange, |
| Fetal alcohol syndome (FAS)- | children who are at risk of hyperactivity severe learning disabilities and depression because of drinking mothers |
| Why does alcohol do to fetus and how did they test this? | It kills the neurons in the developing brain and they showed this by taking rats and injecting some with ethanol |
| Birthing sequence- | 1.dilation of cervix 2.expultion: delivery of infant 3. Delivery of placenta |
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